Animal Rights Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Animal Rights - Research Paper Example Studies suggest that, in the last century or so, almost every medical breakthrough that is relevant to both the animal and human world has had significant contributions from animal research. Such breakthroughs range from antibiotics, chemotherapy, blood transfusions, and organ transplants among others (Jessen). These experiments have contributed significantly towards the quality and length of human life by handling some of the most difficult moments in human life known as disease and health conditions and complications. The above is due to the potential use of animal research in treating heart diseases and cancer, where it has contributed by bringing chemotherapy as an option in controlling and getting rid of cancer in humans and some animals. Due to animal testing and research, there are numerous lives saved from pain and loss since the research conducted provides an avenue to clear any anguish caused by disease. In addition, research on animals allows humans to come up with new vaccines or means of preventing diseases and some conditions that cannot be handled through any other means. This is especially so for the military, where animal research allows them to protect themselves from infection with malaria, Japanese encephalitis and Ross River fever (McGregor). The use of animal research, therefore, implies that without animal research, it would be virtually impossible beat the spread of some of these diseases or even receive treatment for them. In addition to health, animal research has allowed humans to wipe out some of the suffering that humans face across the world. This is following the use of animals in experiments, where humans are not used to find cures for painful diseases and conditions such as arthritis. This ensures that humans do not have to go through the same pain when suffering from the condition. As such, animal research

Response to Coments on DQ1 JS and DQ2 MBw7 Essay

Response to Coments on DQ1 JS and DQ2 MBw7 - Essay Example As you mentioned a company can wipe off the balance sheet a portion of its debt by converting the bonds. The bondholder also benefits in case of a conversion because the investor benefits from all the coupons payments that were received and from the equivalent value in stocks which can be converted into cash by selling them in the open market. DQ2 I agree with you that convertible bonds are a win-win proposition. The bondholder benefits when the bonds are converted into common stocks because the investor would be trading in a principal bond balance which was not liquid for an asset that is extremely liquid due to the fact that common stocks can be sold in the open market instantly. I once owned some common stock of Wal-Mart. When I needed some money I called my broker and he sold my common stocks the same day I placed the sale order. Common stocks are a liquid asset. The cash in the form of coupon payments that the bondholder received represents an added benefit for the bondholder. T he company that issues convertible bonds benefits from the flexibility that convertible bonds provide. Convertible bonds are great investments options that provide the investor with the best of both the equity and debt market (Little, 2011). References Investopedia.com (2011). Convertible Bonds: An Introduction. Retrieved May 18, 2011 from http://www.investopedia.com/articles/01/052301.asp Little, K. (2011).

Applications of Machiavelli Essay Example for Free

Applications of Machiavelli Essay There are many ideas people can learn from history’s great thinkers and achievers. The Renaissance Era had the fastest progress in history. During this era, many thinkers and achievers such as Niccolo Machiavelli, Leonardo Da Vinci and Michelangelo introduced new ideas and new forms of art. Niccolo Machiavelli was an Italian politician and diplomat. The reason his theories are advanced is that he is already used critical thinking while he lived in a country where most people explained things using God and religion. He was also a philosopher, and his many theories about managing a kingdom were quite innovative in Renaissance times. The Prince is a manual about how to manage a kingdom successfully. The Prince was written for Lorenzo de Medici of the Medici Family, which was the best known family in the Renaissance Era. Medici Family made great contributions to the culture because it traded and paid for many works of art in that period. The Medici Family was rich and powerful in Italy, and it was the Renaissance equivalent of a major corporation. Machiavelli lived hundreds of years before the major corporation of today, but The Prince can still be used as a guide to getting ahead in business, just as it is a guide for building a successful princedom. The Medici Family had existed for hundreds of years, and it was powerful and rich just like the Coca-Cola Company. The Coca-Cola Company may also last for hundreds of years since it has been successful for over a hundred years. The Prince tells readers how to use power correctly; it also tells readers how to sustain the kingdom’s power and prevent the kingdom’s  decay. More specifically, Machiavelli tells readers that what kind of personality and morality a successful prince should have. The Prince contains some of Machiavelli’s ideas which were very advanced for that period. These ideas are still useful now and can also equally be applied to the Coca-Cola Company. The Coca-Cola Company is the leader in the beverage industry, and it is a very successful global company. Managing the Coca-Cola Company is similar to managing a kingdom. Therefore, Some of Machiavelli’s theories could be used by the Coca-Cola Company. In the chapter â€Å"How princes should honor their word† and â€Å"The constitutional principality†, I found some appropriate ideas which may be helpful to The Coca-Cola Company. Thesis statement: Although Niccolo Machiavelli died hundreds of years ago, some of his ideas such as showing only the good qualities, keeping a good relationship with people, and making the product indispensable to people are helpful to the Coca-Cola Company. Honor the word: In The Prince, Machiavelli makes some recommendations to the king about how princes should to honor their word. The recommendations can also apply to the advertising of the Coca-Cola Company. Machiavelli said, â€Å"A prince, therefore, need not necessarily have all the good qualities I mentioned above, but he should certainly appear to have them.†(57) No one is perfect, including the prince. Machiavelli believes that a prince should show his good qualities, and hide his bad qualities. It is like the advertisements of the Coca-Cola Company. A good advertisement should show all the advantages of the products or services advertised, and hide the disadvantages. Furthermore, we use our genuineness to earn other people’s trust. However, Machiavelli has a unique perspective on how to earn the trust of people. In chapter eighteen of The Prince, â€Å"†¦princes who have achieved great things have been those who have given their word lightly, who have known how to trick men with their cunning, and who, in the end, have overcome those abiding by honest principles.† (56) If princes want to earn the trust of people, they need to use some type of scheme instead of being honest. This idea can also be used in advertising. A good advertisement is impressive, and it shows only the advantages to the customers instead of showing  everything about the product to the customers. According to Interbrand, Coca-Cola is the most valued brand in the world. Coca-Cola has good sales performance because it attaches great importance to its products’ advertisements. It placed advertisements in magazines, on TV, in websites, and on street signs. In China, the Coca-Cola Company hired a number of well-known Chinese movie stars and athletes to make commercials for Coke. Coke is a great drink for summer because it is thirst quenching and cool. One of the short commercials was very impressive. A group of teenagers was running on the street, and they were sweating hard. Everyone was tired and thirsty. At this time, a van with a Coca-Cola logo passed by. They recovered their energy by drinking Coke. The whole advertisement focused on the teenagers’ athletic bodies and their expressions of enjoyment. This advertisement showed the advantages of Coke, which are the wonderful taste and the cool refreshment; however, it did not show the disadvantages of Coke including high amounts of sugar, caffeine, and chemical additives. After watching the commercial, people have the desire to buy Coke. As Machiavelli advised, The Coca Cola Company is using cunning to trick customers into drinking their soft drinks by showing only the positive aspects of Coca Cola. Relationship with people: Machiavelli has written about the relationship between the prince and the people. â€Å"I shall only conclude that it is necessary for a prince to have the friendship of the people; otherwise he has no remedy in times of adversity†(34) If a prince does not have a good relationship with the people, he will soon lose his power. A prince brings peace and prosperity to the people, and the people give their support to the prince. The â€Å"people† in The Prince are similar to customers in modern society. If a company wants to hold a great market share in the industry, it must focus on its relationship with customers. The Coca-Cola Company has a positive image for customers. The product is shown as â€Å"energetic and youthful†. When people visit the Coca-Cola Company’s official website, they can feel the company’s enthusiasm. The Coca-Cola Company has a short film on its home page which shows polar bears. This film is about the happy life of polar bears. The bears in the film are really cute and kind, and they are enjoying Coca Cola. It definitely leaves a good impression on the customers. Also, the Coca-Cola  Company has successful marketing strategies. The Coca-Cola Company has a great amount of loyal customers because it serves more than 200 countries in the world; customers can buy their products everywhere because they have the most advanced distribution channel. As a result, Coca-Cola is the most valued brand in the world; it has held about a 48% market share of the beverage industry. The Coca-Cola Company is the leader in the industry because it has a good relationship with customers. Make products indispensable: According to The Prince, â€Å"Therefore a wise prince must devise ways by which his citizens are always and in all circumstances dependent on him and on his authority; and then they will always be faithful to him.†Ã¯ ¼Ë†35) That is to say, If a prince wants the people always be faithful to him, he should make people dependent on him. The Coca-Cola Company has a similar idea. When it was introduced, Coca-Cola contained cocaine, and this is the origin of the name â€Å"Coca Cola†. Cocaine is a stimulant from the leaves of the coca plant. People become addicted to cocaine by the long-term use of it. After cocaine was prohibited, The Coca-Cola Company put caffeine in Coke instead of cocaine. However, caffeine still can make people become addicted to Coke, thus, they become dependent upon having Coca Cola for the unique flavor and for the caffeine. One of the most important people in the Coca-Cola Company’s history is Robert W. Woodruff. He was the CEO of the Coca-Cola Company in 1923. Woodruff had the same idea as Machiavelli, which is making customers â€Å"dependent† on Coke. He mentioned that if the customers could not get Coke immediately when they were thirsty, Coca-Cola would lose in the competitive marketplace. The first vending machine was invented, and the Coca Cola Company began to sell coke in retail stores and convenience stores. Woodruff’s idea was to satisfy all the customers no matter when and where the customers wanted Coca Cola. The Coca-Cola Company made a very successful commercial in 1937, which was groundbreaking for that period because the theme was lifestyle. In this commercial, The Coca-Cola Company highlighted the importance of Coke in life instead of the attributes or ingredients of Coke. The most famous advertising slogan from this commercial is â€Å"The Pause That Refreshes†. Woodruff spent a lot of money and time on promoting Coke, but it was well worth the effort. The Coca-Cola  Company still spends lots of money on advertising even in nowadays. In 2012, the Coca-Cola Company spent more than three billion dollars on their advertising and increased the sales of firm and brand recognition. The Coca-Cola Company now has many loyal customers, and Coke plays an important role in our daily lives. Conclusion: Machiavelli wrote The Prince for the Medici family. The Medici family was like the big corporations of today. Because of this, Machiavelli’s ideas are just as important now as they were during the Renaissance era. As Machiavelli advised, princes should only show their good qualities and hide the bad qualities. Through its advertising, the Coca-Cola Company is using cunning to trick customers into drinking its soft drinks by showing only the positive aspects of Coke. Moreover, Machiavelli believes that if princes have a good relationship with people, people will always support them. In modern society, the Coca-Cola Company has many loyal customers because it has a good relationship with them. Furthermore, Machiavelli advised that people will always be faithful to a prince if people are dependent on him. The Coca-Cola Company is using caffeine in its products, so when people drink Coca Cola, they become addicted. Also, the Coca-Cola Company spent a lot of time and money promotin g its products. As a result, the Coca-Cola Company has a great number of loyal customers. All in all, many of the ideas in The Prince are similar to the ideas of the Coca-Cola Company, although The Prince was written during The Renaissance hundreds of years before Coca Cola was introduced. Works Cited Machiavelli, Niccolo. The Prince. Machiavelli, Niccolo. The Prince. London: Penguin Group, 1961. 106.

Product Life Cycle Of Cadbury Dairy Milk

Product Life Cycle Of Cadbury Dairy Milk Cadbury chocolates was started in Birmingham in 1824 by John Cadbury. Chocolate in those days was a very elitist product. Cadbury Dairy Milk came up with the mix of milk and chocolate tray which is pretty much how the product still is. There has been no drastic change in the recipe of the product but the packaging and the representation and prominence of the glass and half of milk logo has changed over a period of time. Cadbury India began its operations in 1948 by importing chocolates and then re-packing them before distribution in the Indian market. Today, Cadbury has five company-owned manufacturing facilities at Thane, Induri (Pune) and Malanpur (Gwalior), Bangalore and Baddi (Himachal Pradesh) and 4 sales offices (New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkota and Chennai). Its corporate office is in Mumbai.Worldwide, (http://www.iloveindia.com/economy-of-india/top-50-companies/cadbury-india.html) A Timeline: 1904   A new recipe is perfected by George Cadbury for milk chocolate. 1905   Cadbury launches Dairy Milk onto the market a new milk chocolate that contains far more milk than anything previously tasted and with a unique creamy taste. 1913   Dairy Milk becomes Cadburys best selling line. Mid 1920s   Dairy Milk becomes UK brand leader a position it still enjoys today. 1928   Fruit Nut is introduced as a variation of Dairy Milk. The glass and a half advertising slogan is introduced. 1933   WholeNut is added to the Dairy Milk family. 1948   Cadbury Dairy Milk is sold in India 1998   Dairy Milk is re-launched with the new and modern pack design, but its recipe and unique taste are still very similar to the original recipe. 2005   Cadbury Dairy Milk celebrates its 100th birthday. (http://www.innovation.cadbury.com/allaboutus/ourbrands/featurebrands/Pages/CadburyDairyMilk2.aspx?TabIndex=1) Brand Identity : Kapferers model Stage in the Product Life Cycle Cadbury Dairy Milk is in the maturity stage of the product Life cycle. It currently has a market share of 70% in the chocolate market and is way ahead of its competitors. There is a high degree of brand awareness. The colour purple and the glass and half full logo is amongst the most recognised logos and the association of the two with Cadbury Dairy Milk is synonymous. Market Scenario/Challenges According to AC Nielson study of 2007: Facts Figures The Indian Chocolate market is estimated to beat around 1500crores. It is growing at the rate of 18-20% per annum With 72% of the market share in India, Cadbury is the market leader. Companies The 2 main competitors in the Indian market that Cadbury faces any competition from are Nestle and Amul. There are several new and local brands like Candico, Sweet World etc. which are trying to make its presence felt. Consumer Trends The Mithaai or sweet has been the tradition in India so far. Chocolates are noow trying to break into that league and hence faces stiff competition more from this product category than its immediate competitors. Chocolates are more of an impulse buy. Consumers are preferring chocolates to Mithaai because of proper packaging, longer shelf life, mid-range pricing and convenience. Consumers have started showing interest in not just milk chocolates but other varieties like Dark Chocolate etc. One of the major challenges that Cadbury Dairy Milk faces is a decline in sales due to new variants being introduced in the market by other brands which could result in the product moving from maturity to decline stage. Another major challenge comes from a different product category altogether which is the Indian Sweets or Mithaai. Steps taken by brand at each stage- at a communication and product level Introduction Cadbury Dairy Milk advertising has always depicted a rich tapestry of human emotions and relationships. In the 1980s, it was positioned as the perfect expression of love, captured in memorable copy: sometimes Cadbury can say it better than words. During the early1990s, Cadbury Dairy Milk emphasised its international identity, communicating that it was the real taste of chocolate. In 1994 came the path-breaking real taste of life campaign. The ad featuring a woman running on the cricket field celebrating the victory is still strongly etched in our mind even today. This campaign created a dramatic shift in the way chocolates were perceived. Cadbury Dairy Milk has increasingly become trapped as a reward or bribe for children and this campaign unshackled the brand by re-positioning it to the free-child in every adult. Cadbury Dairy Milk redefined itself as the perfect expression of spontaneous, shared good feelings, providing the real taste of life experience. The strategy paid off: Bran d Cadbury grew by over 50% in sales volumes. (Super brands) Growth Then in 1998, the next stage of growth for the brand dealt with popularising consumption in a social context, especially in more traditional settings like weddings. With the campaign Khaanein waallon ko khaanein ka bahana chahiye featuring Cyrus Broacha, Cadbury Dairy Milk aimed to substantially increase penetration levels. The campaign was launched in tandem with the award winning Kuchh khaas haicampaign and the media strategy was to let the two co-exist towards a common vision: A Cadbury in every pocket. The brand penetrated into smaller towns and sales volumes grew by 40% (Source: Internal Sales Data). (Super brands) Crisis Management The worm controversy resulted in Cadburys brand image taking a beating. They had to recall a batch of chocolates. Instead of taking any short term measures, Cadbury used this opportunity to take action and rebuild the trust of people. They launched a project Vishwas which educated retailers and wholesalers on storage and other aspects apart from educating consumers. The other major step was to change the packaging. The companys repackaging exercise, which used a combination of packaging technologies, was unprecedented in the category. With the redesigned packaging in place, the company decided to communicate the measures it had taken to safeguard quality standards. To add credibility to its pitch, Cadbury took recourse to Amitabh Bachchans deep baritone. This was the first time that a celebrity was used to endorse Cadbury Dairy Milk. The commercial did wonders to consumer confidence. A series of ads with Bachchan including Pappu Paas ho Gaya to Miss Palampur brought back the lost credibility of the people. With Bachchan they also launched their new positioning of Kuch Meetha Ho Jaaye bringing in the tradition of celebrating a joyous occasion in India with sweets and now Cadbury Dairy Milk in particular. Maturity The focus for a period shifted to taking the concept of Kuch Meetha Ho Jaaye further. The Pehli Tareekh Hai campaigns talked about the importance of having Dairy Milk and celebrating on getting your pay on pay-day. The ads had a very retro-feel to it and did click with the audience. But, it is the recent string of Shubh Aarambh ads that have brought back the old charm of Cadbury Dairy Milk with its very interesting insight of mixing the traditional with the new age. Summary Cadbury Dairy Milk has adapted itself to the Indian market quite impressively. From making a sweet eating nation to switch to chocolates to becoming the market leader, Cadbury Dairy Milk has done it all because of the emotional connect it established with the consumers. Its communication also always focused on the emotional aspects and feelings of life apart from spontaneity. Its communication has always showcased its values and personality. In my opinion, the Kuch Meetha Ho Jaaye concept is a goldmine which can be used in a variety of ways in a country like India.

Respecting Teenagers Will Deter Conflict Essay -- Argumentative Persua

Respecting Teenagers Will Deter Conflict TEENAGERS ARE KNOWN FOR their bizarre mood swings, questioning minds and incessant energy. These traits mixed in with a parent's habit of denying a teen's request without a justification are common causes for many of the conflict between parents and teenagers. This occurs because in childhood "no" is accepted without question--a child is not mature enough, in many cases to question, but that is not in a teen's nature. They are no longer children and should not be treated as such. It is wrong for parents to say "no" without any reason. In doing this they are inciting a teen's anger and encouraging rebellion, therefore causing conflicts that disrupt the peace in a house hold. For example, a classic fight between parents and their teens can be...

Examine the Themes of Innocence and Experience in To Kill a Mockingbird

Examine the Themes of Innocence and Experience in To Kill a Mockingbird Innocence is a time when a person has never done something; it is the first step of the journey from innocence to experience. The second step in this movement is experience and this is what is achieved after a person has done something they have never done before or learns something they have never known before. This theme of growth from innocence to experience occurs many times in To Kill a Mockingbird and is one of the central themes in the first part of the novel, because it shows how Jem and Scout change and mature over a small period of time. Jem, Scout and Dill find ways to use their boundaries, in conjunction with their imaginations to amuse themselves by creating games based on adult behaviour. As the children move through the novel, they use these games to develop from their innocence to experience by defining the realities of their games through the lives of the adults. Through their own games and through the games of the adults, the children learn values of respect, courage, and understanding. The story is told by Scout, a mature narrator looking back on herself as a child. Scout’s naivety and childish view of the world is highlighted by the reader, often understanding events better than Scout herself. The first example of Scout moving from innocence to experience is in Chapter 2, when Scout unwillingly begins school. Her fellow pupil, Walter Cunningham, refuses to borrow some money from Miss Caroline to buy lunch, however Miss Caroline will not accept this refusal. Scout enters the conversation and tries to explain this matter but is consequently punished. She then retaliates, resulting in a fight with Waler which ... ...ever, the main example of innocence in the novel is also in Chapter 10, when the children are given air rifles for Christmas. Atticus says ‘Shoot all the bluejays you want, if you can hit ‘em, but remember it’s a sin to kill a mockingbird’. The mockingbird represents innocence. Like hunters who kill mockingbirds for sport, people kill innocence, or other people who are innocent, without thinking about what they are doing. Atticus stands firm in his defense of innocence and urges his children not to shoot mockingbirds both literally and figuratively. This is also in the title of To Kill a Mockingbird and it has very little literal connection to the plot, but it carries a great deal of symbolic weight. In this story of innocence destroyed by evil, the ‘mockingbird’ comes to represent the idea of innocence. Thus, to kill a mockingbird is to destroy innocence.

The Interaction Between Heredity and Environment

Have you ever wondered why people resemble their parents? The answer to this and other questions about inheritance lies in a specialized branch of biology called genetics. Geneticist found that most aspects of life have a hereditary basis and that many traits can appear in more than one form. For instance, human beings have blond, or red, or brown, or black hair. They may have one of several different types of blood, one or several colors of skin. Their ear lobes may be attached or free. They may or may not be able to manufacture certain enzymes.Some of these traits are much more important to the life of the individual than others, but all of them are hereditary. The geneticist is interested not only in the traits of man but in those of all other organisms as well. The study of inheritance depends on the differences as well as the similarities between parents and offspring over several generations. Heredity is very complex, and a geneticist cannot possibly analyze all the traits of a n organism at once. Instead, he studies only a few traits at a time. Many other traits are present.As the geneticists work out the solution to each hereditary mystery, the geneticist must not forget that all organisms live in a complex environment. The environment may affect the degree to which a hereditary trait develops. The geneticist must try to find out which of the many parts of the environment may affect his results. The factors must be kept as constant as possible by using controlled experiments. Only then can he tell that the differences observed are due to heredity. Heredity determines what an organism may become, not what it will become. What an organism becomes depends on both its heredity and environment.The modern science of genetics started with the work of Gregor Mendel. He found that a certain factor in a plant cell determined the traits the plant would have. Thirty years after his discovery this determines was given the name gene. Of the traits Mendel studied, he c alled dominant those at showed up in the offspring and recessive those The question I will ask is: how much of the variability observed between different individuals is due to hereditary differences between them, and how much to differences in the environments under which the individuals developed?In most organisms, including man, genetics information is transmitted from mother to daughter cells and from one generation to the next by deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Knowledge of the heredity or inheritance of plants and animals is important in many phases of our life. The question I will ask is: How much of the variability observed between different individuals is due to hereditary differences between them, and how much to differences in the environments under which the individuals developed?The purpose of designing a unit on ? Heredity And Environment? is to help students learn more about themselves. They will learn why they develop into the kind of individual they are. The unit will d iscuss heredity traits and environmental conditions, chromosomes, DNA, studies of identical twins, and several diseases linked to heredity and environment. The students will do some hands on activities by constructing a model which represents DNA. They will explore plants with the exact same heredity and plants with different heredity.They will change the conditions in the environment to see the way the plant organisms with the same heredity may develop differently in different environments and why organisms with different heredity develop in the matter in which they do. Heredity is not the only thing that effects development. The environment also has an important effect. The unit can be taught to students in grades five through eight. The science and math teachers are encouraged to use a team teaching approach. Other features that will be included in the unit are content, lesson plans, resources, reading list and a bibliography.Genes and DNA DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid, ma kes up the genes that transmits hereditary traits. The DNA molecule looks like a long, twisted rope ladder. This is called the double helix. The ladder is made up of two coiled strands with rungs between them. The rungs are composed of pairs of chemicals in different combinations. Each combination carries instructions like the dot and dashes of the Morse Code. Each gene in the body is a DNA section with full set of instructions for guiding the formation of just one particular protein. The different proteins made by the genes direct the body? functions throughout a person? s life. DNA is made of six parts: a sugar, a mineral (phosphate), and four special chemicals called bases. These bases are represented as A;T;C; and G. Sugar and phosphate form the chains, or sides, of the staircase. The A;G;C and T bases form the steps. See figure 1. Each step is made of two pieces, which are always paired the same way. The A base always pairs with the T base. And the G base always pairs with the C base. Figure 1. DNA Structure (figure available in print form) DNA Reproduces Itself Two new identical DNAs are immediately formed.The A,G,C, and T bases on each chain attract loose bases found floating within the nucleus. Ts attract As and Cs attract Gs. The two new DNAs are just like the original DNA. Each strand directs the synthesis of a complementary strand. The replication of DNA is the key to heredity, the passing of traits from parents to offspring. DNA replication results in the formation of new reproductive cells. It also results in the formation of new cells, which is important for the growth of an organism. See Fig. 2. Figure 2. (figure available in print form) Watson-Crick?DNA Replication-Redrawn from version in Levine, Genetics, Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1968. Chromosomes Genes and chromosomes provide the genetic link between generations. Chromosomes are strands of DNA and protein found in the nucleus of virtually every cell, but with few exceptions seen only during t he process of cell division. The number of chromosomes in a cell is characteristic of the species. Some have very few, whereas others may have more than a hundred. Ordinarily, every cell in the body of an organism contains the same number of chromosomes.The most important exception is found in the case of gametes where half the usual number is found. Human beings have 46 chromosomes in each cell, with the exception of the spermatozoa in males and the ova in females, each of which has 23 chromosomes. Human chromosomes occur in pairs, the total 46 consisting of 23 pairs; 22 pairs of autosomes which are non-sex determining chromosomes. The member of a pair are essentially identical, with the exception of sex chromosomes in males, and each pair is different from any other pair. Plants and animals inherit chromosomes from their parents.Each plant and animal cell has a set of chromosomes. Chromosomes, then, control the heredity of an organism. They carry the blueprint that determines what kind of organism will develop. Some Relationship Between Heredity And Environment Organisms can transmit some hereditary conditions to their offspring even if the parents do not show the trait. In the small, familiar fruit fly. Drosophila, there is a hereditary trait in which the wings curl up sharply if the files are raised at a temperature of 25 degrees Celsius. If, however, the files are raised at a lower temperature, such as 16 degrees Celsius then the trait rarely appears.The wings seem to be straight, and the flies look normal. The genetic trait is there, however, and will reappear in the next generation if the temperature returns to 25 degrees Celsius. See fig. 3. A similar type of inheritance appears in plants. In some types of corn the kernels will remain yellow until they are exposed to sunlight. Once exposed, the kernels become various shades of red and purple. Some traits do not appear to be affected by the environment. One of the first hereditary traits studied in huma ns was polydactyly. An individual with polydactyly has more than ten figures or toes.See fig. 4. This trait does not seem to be affected by the environment at all. Other human traits like color blindness, baldness, blood type, skin color, the ability to taste certain substances, the presence or absence of hairs on the middle of the fingers, and free or attached ear lobes do not seem to be influenced by the environment. (figure available in print form) Figure 3? This diagram shows how temperature affects curly-wing trait in Drosophila. If the third generation of curly-winged flies had been raised in 16? C environment.Source:Redrawn from Biological Science, Houghton, Mifflin Co. , Boston, 1963, p. 379. Figure 4? An example of polydactyly. Extra digits on either hands or feet are almost always abnormal in structure. (figure available in print form) Source: Biological Science, Houghton Mifflin Co. , Boston, 1963. p. 380. A common cited example of an environmental effect on phenotype is the coloring of Siamese Cats, although these cats have a genotype for dark fur, the enzymes that produce the dark coloring function best at temperatures below the normal body temperature of the cat.Siamese Cats are noted for the dark markings on their ears, nose, paws, tail, and all areas that have a low body temperature. If the hair on the cat? s belly is shaved and an ice pack is applied, the replacement hair will be dark. Likewise, a shaved tail, kept at higher than normal temperatures, would soon be covered with light colored fur. These changes are temporary, however, unless the ice pack or heat source is maintained permanently. The most celebrated effect of an environmental agent directly affecting the unborn, is that produced by the rubella virus.This German measles virus is capable of crossing the placenta from mother to child, and the prenatal infection, if it occurs early enough, may result in deafness and other damage to the child. Similarly, maternal infection with the ra re protozoan parasite Toxoplasma can cause serious congenital defects in the fetus, and the same has been suspected for Asian influenza. Another environmental factor is anoxia. Anoxia is a natural hazard of childbirth, and in most cases the infant makes a normal adjustment to it.When infants suffer from delayed respiration or asphyxia during birth, it is widely accepted that this is responsible for later difficulties such neurologic abnormalities. Warburton and Fraser have emphasized that the development of a fetus depends on a precise and extremely intricate system of interactions between two sets of hereditary factors and two environments, all acting at the same time on the growing baby. The mother and the fetus each have their own environment and their own genotype.